Facile electrocatalytic proton reduction by a [Fe-Fe]-hydrogenase bio-inspired synthetic model bearing a terminal CN- ligand.

An azadithiolate bridged CN- bound pentacarbonyl bis-iron complex, mimicking the active site of [Fe-Fe] H2ase is synthesized. The geometric and electronic structure of this complex is elucidated using a combination of EXAFS analysis, infrared and Mössbauer spectroscopy and DFT calculations. The electrochemical investigations show that complex 1 effectively reduces H+ to H2 between pH 0-3 at diffusion-controlled rates (1011 M-1 s-1) i.e. 108 s-1 at pH 3 with an overpotential of 140 mV. Electrochemical analysis and DFT calculations suggests that a CN- ligand increases the pKa of the cluster enabling hydrogen production from its Fe(i)-Fe(0) state at pHs much higher and overpotential much lower than its precursor bis-iron hexacarbonyl model which is active in its Fe(0)-Fe(0) state. The formation of a terminal Fe-H species, evidenced by spectroelectrochemistry in organic solvent, via a rate determining proton coupled electron transfer step and protonation of the adjacent azadithiolate, lowers the kinetic barrier leading to diffusion controlled rates of H2 evolution. The stereo-electronic factors enhance its catalytic rate by 3 order of magnitude relative to a bis-iron hexacarbonyl precursor at the same pH and potential.

Mössbauer and Nuclear Resonance Vibrational Spectroscopy Studies of Iron Species Involved in N-N Bond Cleavage.

Diketiminate-supported iron complexes are capable of cleaving the strong triple bond of N2 to give a tetra-iron complex with two nitrides (Rodriguez et al., Science, 2011, 334, 780-783). The mechanism of this reaction has been difficult to determine, but a transient green species was observed during the reaction that corresponds to a potential intermediate. Here, we describe studies aiming to identify the characteristics of this intermediate, using a range of spectroscopic techniques, including Mössbauer spectroscopy, electronic absorption spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) complemented by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. We successfully elucidated the nature of the starting iron(II) species and the bis(nitride) species in THF solution, and in each case, THF breaks up the multiiron species. Various observations on the green intermediate species indicate that it has one N2 per two Fe atoms, has THF associated with it, and has NRVS features indicative of bridging N2. Computational models with a formally diiron(0)-N2 core are most consistent with the accumulated data, and on this basis, a mechanism for N2 splitting is suggested. This work shows the power of combining NRVS, Mössbauer, NMR, and vibrational spectroscopies with computations for revealing the nature of transient iron species during N2 cleavage.

Structural correlations of nitrogenase active sites using nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy and QM/MM calculations.

The biological conversion of N2 to NH3 is accomplished by the nitrogenase family, which is collectively comprised of three closely related but unique metalloenzymes. In the present study, we have employed a combination of the synchrotron-based technique of 57Fe nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy together with DFT-based quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations to probe the electronic structure and dynamics of the catalytic components of each of the three unique M N2ase enzymes (M = Mo, V, Fe) in both the presence (holo-) and absence (apo-) of the catalytic FeMco clusters (FeMoco, FeVco and FeFeco). The results described herein provide vibrational mode assignments for important fingerprint regions of the FeMco clusters, and demonstrate the sensitivity of the calculated partial vibrational density of states (PVDOS) to the geometric and electronic structures of these clusters. Furthermore, we discuss the challenges that are faced when employing NRVS to investigate large, multi-component metalloenzymatic systems, and outline the scope and limitations of current state-of-the-art theory in reproducing complex spectra.

Amine Groups in the Second Sphere of Iron Porphyrins Allow for Higher and Selective 4e-/4H+ Oxygen Reduction Rates at Lower Overpotentials.

Iron porphyrins with one or four tertiary amine groups in their second sphere are used to investigate the electrochemical O2 reduction reaction (ORR) in organic (homogeneous) and aqueous (heterogeneous) conditions. Both of these complexes show selective 4e-/4H+ reduction of oxygen to water at rates that are 2-3 orders of magnitude higher than those of iron tetraphenylporphyrin lacking these amines in the second sphere. In organic solvents, these amines get protonated, which leads to the lowering of overpotentials, and the rate of the ORR is enhanced almost 75,000 times relative to rates expected from the established scaling relationship for the ORR by iron porphyrins. In the aqueous medium, the same trend of higher ORR rates at a lower overpotential is observed. In situ resonance Raman data under heterogeneous aqueous conditions show that the presence of one amine group in the second sphere leads to a cleavage of the O-O bond in a FeIII-OOH intermediate as the rate-determining step (rds). The presence of four such amine groups enhances the rate of O-O bond cleavage such that this intermediate is no longer observed during the ORR; rather, the proton-coupled reduction of the FeIII-O2- intermediate with a H/D isotope effect of 10.6 is the rds. These data clearly demonstrate changes in the rds of the electrochemical ORR depending on the nature of second-sphere residues and explain their deviation from linear scaling relationships.

Proton Relay in Iron Porphyrins for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction.

The efficiency of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) can be facilitated by the presence of proton-transfer groups in the vicinity of the catalyst. A systematic investigation of the nature of the proton-transfer groups present and their interplay with bulk proton sources is warranted. The HERs electrocatalyzed by a series of iron porphyrins that vary in the nature and number of pendant amine groups are investigated using proton sources whose pKa values vary from ∼9 to 15 in acetonitrile. Electrochemical data indicate that a simple iron porphyrin (FeTPP) can catalyze the HER at this FeI state where the rate-determining step is the intermolecular protonation of a FeIII-H- species produced upon protonation of the iron(I) porphyrin and does not need to be reduced to its formal Fe0 state. A linear free-energy correlation of the observed rate with pKa of the acid source used suggests that the rate of the HER becomes almost independent of pKa of the external acid used in the presence of the protonated distal residues. Protonation to the FeIII-H- species during the HER changes from intermolecular in FeTPP to intramolecular in FeTPP derivatives with pendant basic groups. However, the inclusion of too many pendant groups leads to a decrease in HER activity because the higher proton binding affinity of these residues slows proton transfer for the HER. These results enrich the existing understanding of how second-sphere proton-transfer residues alter both the kinetics and thermodynamics of transition-metal-catalyzed HER.

Electrocatalytic Water Oxidation by a Phosphorus-Nitrogen O═PN3-Pincer Cobalt Complex.

Water oxidation is a primary step in natural as well as artificial photosynthesis to convert renewable solar energy into chemical energy/fuels. Electrocatalytic water oxidation to evolve O2, utilizing suitable low-cost catalysts and renewable electricity, is of fundamental importance considering contemporary energy and environmental issues, yet it is kinetically challenging owing to the complex multiproton/electron transfer processes. Herein, we report the first cobalt-based pincer catalyst for catalytic water oxidation at neutral pH with high efficiency under electrochemical conditions. Most importantly, ligand (pseudo)aromaticity is identified to play an important role during electrocatalysis. A significant potential jump (∼300 mV) was achieved toward a lower positive value when the aromatized cobalt complex was transformed into a (pseudo)dearomatized cobalt species. The dearomatized species catalyzes the water oxidation reaction to evolve oxygen at a much lower overpotential (∼340 mV) on the basis of the onset potential (at a current density of 0.5 mA/cm2) of catalysis at pH 10.5, outperforming other Co-based molecular catalysts reported to date. These observations may provide a new strategy for the judicious design of earth-abundant transition-metal-based water oxidation catalysts.

Elucidation of Factors That Govern the 2e-/2H+ vs 4e-/4H+ Selectivity of Water Oxidation by a Cobalt Corrole.

Considering the importance of water splitting as the best solution for clean and renewable energy, the worldwide efforts for development of increasingly active molecular water oxidation catalysts must be accompanied by studies that focus on elucidating the mode of actions and catalytic pathways. One crucial challenge remains the elucidation of the factors that determine the selectivity of water oxidation by the desired 4e-/4H+ pathway that leads to O2 rather than by 2e-/2H+ to H2O2. We now show that water oxidation with the cobalt-corrole CoBr8 as electrocatalyst affords H2O2 as the main product in homogeneous solutions, while heterogeneous water oxidation by the same catalyst leads exclusively to oxygen. Experimental and computation-based investigations of the species formed during the process uncover the formation of a Co(III)-superoxide intermediate and its preceding high-valent Co-oxyl complex. The competition between the base-catalyzed hydrolysis of Co(III)-hydroperoxide [Co(III)-OOH]- to release H2O2 and the electrochemical oxidation of the same to release O2 via [Co(III)-O2•]- is identified as the key step determining the selectivity of water oxidation.

Homogeneous Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 to CO by a Cobalt Pyridine Thiolate Complex.

The chemical and electrochemical reduction of CO2 to value added chemicals entails the development of efficient and selective catalysts. Synthesis, characterization and electrochemical CO2 reduction activity of a air-stable cobalt(III) diphenylphosphenethano-bis(2-pyridinethiolate)chloride [{Co(dppe)(2-PyS)2}Cl, 1-Cl] complex is divulged. The complex reduces CO2 under homogeneous electrocatalytic conditions to produce CO with high Faradaic efficiency (FE > 92%) and selectivity in the presence of water. Through detailed electrochemical investigations, product analysis, and mechanistic investigations supported by theoretical calculations, it is established that complex 1-Cl reduces CO2 in its Co(I) state. A reductive cleavage leads to a dangling protonated pyridine arm which enables facile CO2 binding through a H-bond donation and facilitates the C-O bond cleavage via a directed protonation. A systematic benchmarking of this catalyst indicates that it has a modest overpotential (∼180 mV) and a TOF of ∼20 s-1 for selective reduction of CO2 to CO with H2O as a proton source.

A designed second-sphere hydrogen-bond interaction that critically influences the O-O bond activation for heterolytic cleavage in ferric iron-porphyrin complexes.

Heme hydroperoxidases catalyze the oxidation of substrates by H2O2. The catalytic cycle involves the formation of a highly oxidizing species known as Compound I, resulting from the two-electron oxidation of the ferric heme in the active site of the resting enzyme. This high-valent intermediate is formed upon facile heterolysis of the O-O bond in the initial FeIII-OOH complex. Heterolysis is assisted by the histidine and arginine residues present in the heme distal cavity. This chemistry has not been successfully modeled in synthetic systems up to now. In this work, we have used a series of iron(iii) porphyrin complexes (FeIIIL2(Br), FeIIIL3(Br) and FeIIIMPh(Br)) with covalently attached pendent basic groups (pyridine and primary amine) mimicking the histidine and arginine residues in the distal-pocket of natural heme enzymes. The presence of pendent basic groups, capable of 2nd sphere hydrogen bonding interactions, leads to almost 1000-fold enhancement in the rate of Compound I formation from peracids relative to analogous complexes without these residues. The short-lived Compound I intermediate formed at cryogenic temperatures could be detected using UV-vis electronic absorption spectroscopy and also trapped to be unequivocally identified by 9 GHz EPR spectroscopy at 4 K. The broad (2000 G) and axial EPR spectrum of an exchange-coupled oxoferryl-porphyrin radical species, [FeIV[double bond, length as m-dash]O Por˙+] with g eff ⊥ = 3.80 and g eff ‖ = 1.99, was observed upon a reaction of the FeIIIL3(Br) porphyrin complex with m-CPBA. The characterization of the reactivity of the FeIII porphyrin complexes with a substrate in the presence of an oxidant like m-CPBA by UV-vis electronic absorption spectroscopy showed that they are capable of oxidizing two equivalents of inorganic and organic substrate(s) like ferrocene, 2,4,6-tritertiary butyl phenol and o-phenylenediamine. These oxidations are catalytic with a turnover number (TON) as high as 350. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations show that the mechanism of O-O bond activation by 2nd sphere hydrogen bonding interaction from these pendent basic groups, which are protonated by a peracid, involves polarization of the O-O σ-bond, leading to lowering of the O-O σ*-orbital allowing enhanced back bonding from the iron center. These results demonstrate how inclusion of 2nd sphere hydrogen bonding interaction can play a critical role in O-O bond heterolysis.

The Equatorial Ligand Effect on the Properties and Reactivity of Iron(V) Oxo Intermediates.

High-valent metal oxo oxidants are common catalytic-cycle intermediates in enzymes and known to be highly reactive. To understand which features of these oxidants affect their reactivity, a series of biomimetic iron(V) oxo oxidants with peripherally substituted biuret-modified tetraamido macrocyclic ligands were synthesized and characterized. Major shifts in the UV/Vis absorption as a result of replacing a group in the equatorial plane of the iron(V) oxo species were found. Further characterization by EPR spectroscopy, ESI-MS, and resonance Raman spectroscopy revealed differences in structure and the electronic configuration of these complexes. A systematic reactivity study with a range of substrates was performed and showed that the reactions are affected by electron-withdrawing substituents in the equatorial ligand, which enhance the reaction rate by almost 1016 orders of magnitude. Thus, the long-range electrostatic perturbations have a major influence on the rate constant. Finally, computational studies identified the various electronic contributions to the rate-determining reaction step and explained how the equatorial ligand periphery affects the properties of the oxidant.

Formally Ferric Heme Carbon Monoxide Adduct.

Formally ferric carbonyl adducts are reported in a series of thiolate-bound iron porphyrins. Resonance Raman data indicate the presence of both Fe-S and Fe-CO bonds, and EPR data of this S = 1/2 species indicate a ligand-based electron hole, giving this complex an Fe(II)-thiyl radical electronic ground state. The FTIR data show that the C-O vibrations are substantially higher than in the corresponding ferrous-thiolate CO adducts. DFT calculations reproduce the spectroscopic features and indicate that backbonding to the low lying π* orbitals of the bound CO stabilizes the Fe 3d orbitals resulting in a stabilization of the ferrous-thiyl radical ground state compared to the five-coordinate ferric-thiolate precursor complexes. Access to stable thiyl radicals will help understand these elusive species that are mostly encountered as short-lived reactive reaction intermediates.

Role of 2nd sphere H-bonding residues in tuning the kinetics of CO2 reduction to CO by iron porphyrin complexes.

Iron porphyrins are potential catalysts for the electrocatalytic and photocatalytic reduction of CO2. It has been recently established that the reduction of CO2 by an iron porphyrin complex with a hydrogen bonding distal pocket involves at least two intermediates: a Fe(ii)-CO22- and a Fe(ii)-COOH species. A distal hydrogen bonding interaction was found to be key in determining the stability of these intermediates and affecting both the selectivity and rate of CO2 reduction. In this report, a series of iron porphyrins that vary only in the distal H-bonding network are further investigated and these exhibit turnover frequencies (TOFs) ranging from 1.0 s-1 to 103 s-1. The experimental TOFs correlate with the H-bonding ability of the distal superstructure of these iron porphyrin complexes and analysis suggests that H-bonding alone can tune the rate of CO2 reduction by as much as 1000 fold. DFT calculations provide a detailed insight into how the, apparently weak, 2nd sphere interactions lead to efficient CO2 activation for reduction. The ability to tune CO2 reduction rates by changing the H-bonding residue instead of the acid source is a convenient way to tune CO2 reduction electrocatalysis without compromising selectivity by introducing competitive hydrogen evolution reaction or formate generation.

Rational Design of Mononuclear Iron Porphyrins for Facile and Selective 4e-/4H+ O2 Reduction: Activation of O-O Bond by 2nd Sphere Hydrogen Bonding.

Facile and selective 4e-/4H+ electrochemical reduction of O2 to H2O in aqueous medium has been a sought-after goal for several decades. Elegant but synthetically demanding cytochrome c oxidase mimics have demonstrated selective 4e-/4H+ electrochemical O2 reduction to H2O is possible with rate constants as fast as 105 M-1 s-1 under heterogeneous conditions in aqueous media. Over the past few years, in situ mechanistic investigations on iron porphyrin complexes adsorbed on electrodes have revealed that the rate and selectivity of this multielectron and multiproton process is governed by the reactivity of a ferric hydroperoxide intermediate. The barrier of O-O bond cleavage determines the overall rate of O2 reduction and the site of protonation determines the selectivity. In this report, a series of mononuclear iron porphyrin complexes are rationally designed to achieve efficient O-O bond activation and site-selective proton transfer to effect facile and selective electrochemical reduction of O2 to water. Indeed, these crystallographically characterized complexes accomplish facile and selective reduction of O2 with rate constants >107 M-1 s-1 while retaining >95% selectivity when adsorbed on electrode surfaces (EPG) in water. These oxygen reduction reaction rate constants are 2 orders of magnitude faster than all known heme/Cu complexes and these complexes retain >90% selectivity even under rate determining electron transfer conditions that generally can only be achieved by installing additional redox active groups in the catalyst.

Iron(ii) complexes of 2-mercaptopyridine as rubredoxin site analogues.

The synthesis, characterization and reactivity studies of iron(ii) complexes [FeII(PySH)4](OTf)2, 1-(OTf)2, [FeII(PySH)4](ClO)4, 1-(ClO4)2, and [FeII(PyS)2]n, (2), of a 2-mercaptopyridine (PySH) ligand are discussed. The X-ray crystal structures of both 1-(OTf)2 and 1-(ClO4)2 reveal a distorted tetrahedral geometry at the iron(ii) center with identical constituents. All the pyridine nitrogen atoms are protonated and thiolate ions are coordinated to the iron(ii) center. The structure and function of complex 1-(OTf)2 or 1-(ClO4)2 resembles the active site of rubredoxin. Complex 2 has octahedral geometry at the iron(ii) center forming a 1-D coordination polymer. Complex 1-(OTf)2 exhibits a high positive redox potential (E1/2 = 0.23 V vs. Ag/AgCl) which reduces to -0.12 V in the presence of triethylamine under an inert atmosphere. This change of the redox potential is highly reversible in the presence of a weak acid such as p-toluenesulfonic acid, pTsOH. DFT studies show that the complex cation [FeII(PySH)4]2+ upon treatment with a base converts to its anionic congener, [FeII(PyS)4]2-, via the deprotonation of the pyridinium moiety. The iron(ii) complexes readily react with molecular oxygen to yield the corresponding iron(iii) complex, which rapidly decays to form pyridine disulphide (Py2S2) and an iron(ii) complex.

Ligand-Induced Tuning of the Oxidase Activity of µ-Hydroxidodimanganese(III) Complexes Using 3,5-Di-tert-butylcatechol as the Substrate: Isolation and Characterization of Products Involving an Oxidized Dioxolene Moiety.

Oxidase activities of a µ-hydroxidodimanganese(III) system involving a series of tetradentate capping ligands H2LR1,R2 with a pair of phenolate arms have been investigated in the presence of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol (H2DBC) as a coligand cum-reductant. The reaction follows two distinctly different paths, decided by the substituent combinations (R1 and R2) present in the capping ligand. With the ligands H2Lt-Bu,t-Bu and H2Lt-Bu,OMe, the products obtained are semiquinonato compounds [MnIII(Lt-Bu,t-Bu)(DBSQ)]·2CH3OH (1) and [MnIII(Lt-Bu,OMe)(DBSQ)]·CH3OH (2), respectively. In the process, molecular oxygen is reduced by two electrons to generate H2O2 in the solution, as confirmed by iodometric detection. With the rest of the ligands, viz., H2LMe,Me, H2Lt-Bu,Me, H2LMe,t-Bu, and H2LCl,Cl, the products initially obtained are believed to be highly reactive quinonato compounds [MnIII(LR1,R2)(DBQ)]+, which undergo a domino reaction with the solvent methanol to generate products of composition [MnIII(LR1,R2)(BMOD)] (3-6) involving a nonplanar dioxolene moiety, viz., 3,5-di-tert-butyl-3-methoxy-6-oxocyclohexa-1,4-dienolate (BMOD-). This novel dioxolene derivative is formed by a Michael-type nucleophilic 1,4-addition reaction of the methoxy group to the coordinated quinone in [MnIII(LR1,R2)(DBQ)]+. During this reaction, molecular oxygen is reduced by four electrons to generate water. The products have been characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis as well as by spectroscopic methods and magnetic measurements. Density functional theory calculations have been made to address the observed influence of the secondary coordination sphere in tuning the two-electron versus four-electron reduction of dioxygen. The semiquinone form of the dioxolene moiety is stabilized in compounds 1 and 2 because of extended electron delocalization via participation of the appropriate metal orbital(s).

Spectroscopic and Reactivity Comparisons of a Pair of bTAML Complexes with FeV═O and FeIV═O Units.

In this report we compare the geometric and electronic structures and reactivities of [FeV(O)]- and [FeIV(O)]2- species supported by the same ancillary nonheme biuret tetraamido macrocyclic ligand (bTAML). Resonance Raman studies show that the Fe═O vibration of the [FeIV(O)]2- complex 2 is at 798 cm-1, compared to 862 cm-1 for the corresponding [FeV(O)]- species 3, a 64 cm-1 frequency difference reasonably reproduced by density functional theory calculations. These values are, respectively, the lowest and the highest frequencies observed thus far for nonheme high-valent Fe═O complexes. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure analysis of 3 reveals an Fe═O bond length of 1.59 Å, which is 0.05 Å shorter than that found in complex 2. The redox potentials of 2 and 3 are 0.44 V (measured at pH 12) and 1.19 V (measured at pH 7) versus normal hydrogen electrode, respectively, corresponding to the [FeIV(O)]2-/[FeIII(OH)]2- and [FeV(O)]-/[FeIV(O)]2- couples. Consistent with its higher potential (even after correcting for the pH difference), 3 oxidizes benzyl alcohol at pH 7 with a second-order rate constant that is 2500-fold bigger than that for 2 at pH 12. Furthermore, 2 exhibits a classical kinteic isotope effect (KIE) of 3 in the oxidation of benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde versus a nonclassical KIE of 12 for 3, emphasizing the reactivity differences between 2 and 3.

Activating Fe(I) Porphyrins for the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Using Second-Sphere Proton Transfer Residues.

Iron porphyrin complexes with second-sphere distal triazole residues show a hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) catalyzed by the Fe(I) state in both organic and aqueous media, whereas an analogous iron porphyrin complex without the distal residues catalyzes the HER in the formal Fe(0) state. This activation of the Fe(I) state by the second-sphere residues lowers the overpotential of the HER by these iron porphyrin complexes by 50%. Experimental data and theoretical calculations indicate that the distal triazole residues, once protonated, enhance the proton affinity of the iron center via formation of a dihydrogen bond with an Fe(III)-H- intermediate.

Theoretical exploration of the mechanism of formylmethanofuran dehydrogenase: the first reductive step in CO2 fixation by methanogens.

A theoretical exploration of the possible active site models of methanofuran dehydrogenase reveals that the free energy of the reduction of the carbamate group is substantially negative and is driven by the electron withdrawing amide group next to the carbonyl carbon. Comparison of the computed transition state energies with the experimental energy barrier indicates that the active site is likely to have an axial oxo and equatorial hydrosulfide ligand, the substrate is likely to be protonated and a second-sphere hydrogen-bonding interaction with the axial ligand can, substantially, lower the barrier of this reaction which involves reduction of the carbonyl center of the a carbamate to form an N-formyl group via a hydride shift from a Mo(IV) center.

Second sphere control of spin state: Differential tuning of axial ligand bonds in ferric porphyrin complexes by hydrogen bonding.

An iron porphyrin with a pre-organized hydrogen bonding (H-Bonding) distal architecture is utilized to avoid the inherent loss of entropy associated with H-Bonding from solvent (water) and mimic the behavior of metallo-enzyme active sites attributed to H-Bonding interactions of active site with the 2nd sphere residues. Resonance Raman (rR) data on these iron porphyrin complexes indicate that H-Bonding to an axial ligand like hydroxide can result in both stronger or weaker Fe(III)-OH bond relative to iron porphyrin complexes. The 6-coordinate (6C) complexes bearing water derived axial ligands, trans to imidazole or thiolate axial ligand with H-Bonding stabilize a low spin (LS) ground state (GS) when a complex without H-Bonding stabilizes a high spin (HS) ground state. DFT calculations reproduce the trend in the experimental data and provide a mechanism of how H-Bonding can indeed lead to stronger metal ligand bonds when the axial ligand donates an H-Bond and lead to weaker metal ligand bonds when the axial ligand accepts an H-Bond. The experimental and computational results explain how a weak Fe(III)-OH bond (due to H-Bonding) can lead to the stabilization of low spin ground state in synthetic mimics and in enzymes containing iron porphyrin active sites. H-Bonding to a water ligand bound to a reduced ferrous active site can only strengthen the Fe(II)-OH2 bond and thus exclusion of water and hydrophilic residues from distal sites of O2 binding/activating heme proteins is necessary to avoid inhibition of O2 binding by water. These results help demonstrate the predominant role played by H-Bonding and subtle changes in its orientation in determining the geometric and electronic structure of iron porphyrin based active sites in nature.

Density functional theory calculations on the active site of biotin synthase: mechanism of S transfer from the Fe(2)S(2) cluster and the role of 1st and 2nd sphere residues.

Density functional theory (DFT) calculations are performed on the active site of biotin synthase (BS) to investigate the sulfur transfer from the Fe(2)S(2) cluster to dethiobiotin (DTB). The active site is modeled to include both the 1st and 2nd sphere residues. Molecular orbital theory considerations and calculation on smaller models indicate that only an S atom (not S²â») transfer from an oxidized Fe(2)S(2) cluster leads to the formation of biotin from the DTB using two adenosyl radicals generated from S-adenosyl-L-methionine. The calculations on larger protein active site model indicate that a 9-monothiobiotin bound reduced cluster should be an intermediate during the S atom insertion from the Fe(2)S(2) cluster consistent with experimental data. The Arg260 bound to Fe1, being a weaker donor than cysteine bound to Fe(2), determines the geometry and the electronic structure of this intermediate. The formation of this intermediate containing the C9-S bond is estimated to have a ΔG(≠) of 17.1 kcal/mol while its decay by the formation of the 2nd C6-S bond is calculated to have a ΔG(≠) of 29.8 kcal/mol, i.e. the 2nd C-S bond formation is calculated to be the rate determining step in the cycle and it leads to the decay of the Fe(2)S(2) cluster. Significant configuration interaction (CI), present in these transition states, helps lower the barrier of these reactions by ~30-25 kcal/mol relative to a hypothetical outer-sphere reaction. The conserved Phe285 residue near the Fe(2)S(2) active site determines the stereo selectivity at the C6 center of this radical coupling reaction. Reaction mechanism of BS investigated using DFT calculations. Strong CI and the Phe285 residue control the kinetic rate and stereochemistry of the product.